PLL TRACKER REFERENCE FREQ 200 Hz LOOP GAIN (K) 2.0 FILTER CUTOFF 0.10 VCO Freq: -- Phase Error: -- START TRACKING INPUT (BLUE) VS VCO (RED) CONTROL VOLTAGE (LOOP ERROR) PLL Mathematical Dynamics A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is a closed-loop feedback control system. Its purpose is to continuously compare a reference signal with a locally generated signal and adjust the local oscillator until both signals have the same frequency and a constant phase relationship. Fundamental Error Equation θ err (t) = θ ref (t) − θ vco (t) This quantity is called the phase error . The PLL's objective is to drive this error toward zero (or a small constant value) through feedback. The Three-...

VCO Module v1.0 (Simple) Inputs & Controls Control Voltage (V) 0.00 V Tracking (Hz per Volt) 100 Hz Base Frequency (Offset) 220 Hz Waveform Sine Square Sawtooth Triangle START AUDIO Oscilloscope Output Frequency: 220 Hz Equation: f = Base + (CV × Tracking) Advanced VCO (1V/Oct) CONTROL VOLTAGE 0.00 V BASE FREQUENCY 261.63 Hz WAVEFORM SAWTOOTH (RICH HARMONICS) ...

Advanced M-ary Communication Lab Analytical & Statistical Performance of Digital Modulation Theoretical Probability of Error (\(P_s\)) \[ P_s = Q\left(\sqrt{\frac{2 E_b}{N_0}}\right) \] Modulation (M-ary) BPSK (M=2) QPSK (M=4) 8-PSK (M=8) 16-QAM (M=16) 64-QAM (M=64) 256-QAM (M=256) SNR (\(E_b/N_0\)): 12 dB Efficiency 2 bps/Hz Min Dist (\(d_{min}\)) 1.41 Symbol Error 1.2e-5 EVM (RMS) 0.0% Constellation Diagram Noise PDF & Decision Tail 1. Geometric Mapping ...

87. Match the List-I with List-II. Breakdown Electric fields in the following materials: List-I (Name of the material) List-II (Breakdown Electric field (V/cm)) (a) GaAs I. 10 5 (b) SiC II. 4 × 10 5 (c) Si 3 N 4 III. 2.3 × 10 6 (d) Ge IV. 10 7 Choose the correct answer from the options given below: (a) (b) (c) (d) A. II III I IV B. II III IV I C. IV II III I D. IV I III II Answer: option B Previous yr Question papers with Full Explanations →

86. In case of Avalanche Photo Detector (APD) (a) APD is more sensitive than PIN photo diode (b) APD is a PIN structure (c) A high electric field intensity is required in APD (d) There is less noise generation in APD as compared to PIN photo diode A. (a) and (b) only B. (b) and (c) only C. (a) and (d) only D. (a) and (c) only Answer; Option D Previous yr Question papers with Full Explanations →

Function of LDR Function of an LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) An LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is an electronic component whose resistance changes according to the amount of light falling on it . Function of an LDR In bright light: the resistance of the LDR becomes low. In darkness: the resistance of the LDR becomes high. This property allows an LDR to act as a light sensor . Common Applications Automatic street lights (turn on at night, off during the day) Light-sensitive alarms Camera light meters Solar garden lights Brightness control in electronic devices Working Principle An LDR is made from a photoconductive material (commonly cadmium sulfide). When light strikes the material, more charge carriers are generated, allowing current to flow more easily and reducing resistance. ...

85. Which of the following statements are correct? (a) Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are based on Photo conductive Effect. (b) In LDRs, resistance increases from its dark resistance value with increase in light intensity. (c) LDRs are slow responding to changes in light intensity. (d) Photodiodes can be operated only in the photoconductive region. (e) Photodiodes have a faster switching time than Photo-transistors. A. (a), (c) and (d) only B. (a), (b) and (c) only C. (a), (b) and (e) only D. (a), (c) and (e) only Answer: Option D Previous yr Question papers with Full Explanations →

83. The Doppler frequency seen by a stationary radar with a (CW) transmit frequency of 5 GHz and target radial velocity of 100 km/hr is: A. 387 Hz B. 256 Hz C. 428 Hz D. 927 Hz Answer Option D Solution doppler frequency = 2*v/λ =2*(100*5/18) / (3*10^8/5*10^9) = 927 (approx) Read more about Doppler Frequency (click here) Previous yr Question papers with Full Explanations →