Open-Loop vs Closed-Loop Op-Amp Gain Mathematical Difference Between Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Op-Amp Gain The mathematical difference between open-loop gain and closed-loop gain in an operational amplifier (op-amp) is mainly based on the use of feedback. 1. Open-Loop Gain An op-amp without feedback is called an open-loop amplifier . Its gain is extremely large. Formula A OL = V out / (V + - V - ) Where: A OL = Open-loop gain V + = Non-inverting input voltage V - = Inverting input voltage Typical open-loop gain: A OL = 10 5 to 10 6 Example of Open-Loop Gain Suppose: A OL = 100000 Input difference V d = 1mV = 0.001V V out = A OL × V d V out = 100000 × 0.001 = 100V Since the op-amp supply voltage is limited, the output saturates near the supply voltage ...

  Harvard vs Von Neumann Architecture Harvard vs Von Neumann Architecture 1. Basic Idea Feature Von Neumann Harvard Memory for instructions and data Same memory Separate memories Bus system One shared bus Separate buses Can fetch instruction and data together? No Yes Speed Slower Faster Complexity Simpler More complex 2. Von Neumann Architecture In this design, instructions and data are stored in the same memory. The CPU uses the same bus for both instruction fetch and data transfer. Example Address Content 100 Instruction: ADD 101 Data = 5 ...

  ADC Types Comparison ADC Types Comparison An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) converts an analog voltage into a digital number. Main ADC types: Flash ADC Successive Approximation (SAR) ADC Dual-Slope ADC Sigma-Delta ADC 1. Flash ADC Concept Flash ADC compares the input voltage with many reference voltages simultaneously. It is the fastest ADC architecture. Block Diagram Input → Comparator Array → Encoder → Digital Output Comparator Formula Comparators = 2ⁿ - 1 Example for 3-bit ADC: 2³ - 1 = 7 comparators Reference Voltages 0.5V, 1.0V, 1.5V, 2.0V, 2.5V, 3.0V, 3.5V Input Example Vin = 2.3V Thermometer code: 1111000 Binary output: 100 Speed Conversion Time ≈ 1 clock cycle Advantages ...

  Constant Voltage Scaling vs Constant Field Scaling Constant Voltage Scaling and Constant Field Scaling 1. Why Scaling Matters In semiconductor device design, especially MOSFET scaling, transistor dimensions are reduced to improve speed and density. Suppose we shrink all linear dimensions by a factor S > 1 . L' = L / S W' = W / S t ox ' = t ox / S Where: L = channel length W = transistor width t ox = oxide thickness The major question becomes: should voltage also scale? 2. Constant Voltage Scaling In constant voltage scaling, device dimensions shrink but supply voltage remains fixed. V' = V L' = L / S Electric Field Electric field is approximately: E = V / L After scaling: E' = V' / L...

Single Pole System - Technical Reference Single Pole System A single-pole system (or first-order system) is a linear time-invariant system whose transfer function contains exactly one pole in the denominator and no zeros in the numerator that can cancel it. Mathematical Definition There are two primary ways to express a first-order single-pole transfer function: 1. Time Constant Form (Standard Form): H(s) = K / (1 + sτ) Where K is the DC Gain and τ (tau) is the time constant. 2. Pole-Location Form: H(s) = A / (s + α) Where -α is the pole location. In this form, the DC Gain is actually A/α . What is a Pole? A pole is the value of s (the complex frequency) that makes the denominator of the transfer function zero, causing the gain to approach infinity. For the system: H(s) = 10 / (s + 5) Set denominator to zero: s + 5 = 0 The pole is at: s = -5 For stability in a continuous system, this pole mus...

  Forward and Reverse Blocking Mode in Thyristor A thyristor (such as an SCR — Silicon Controlled Rectifier) has three terminals: Anode (A), Cathode (K), and Gate (G) . Its operation depends on the polarity of the applied voltage and gate signal. 1. Forward Blocking Mode In this mode: Anode is positive with respect to cathode. Gate signal is not applied. So the SCR is forward biased, but it still does not conduct. What happens internally? Junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased. Junction J2 is reverse biased. Only a very small leakage current flows. VA > VK If the forward voltage exceeds the forward breakover voltage , the SCR turns ON automatically even without gate current. This mode acts like an open switch waiting for a gate pulse. 2. Reverse...

  Quantum Dot, Quantum Wire, Quantum Well, and Bulk These terms describe semiconductor materials based on how many dimensions electrons are free to move in. As the size of a material becomes extremely small (nanometer scale), quantum effects appear and change the electrical and optical properties. 1. Bulk Material (3D) In a bulk material, electrons can move freely in all three dimensions. Electron Motion X-direction → Free Y-direction → Free Z-direction → Free Characteristics Large-sized material No quantum confinement Continuous energy bands Examples Ordinary silicon wafer Copper wire Large semiconductor crystals 2. Quantum Well (2D) A quantum well confines electrons in one dimension while allowing movement in two dimensions. Electron Motion ...

Simulator Setup Methodology Live Plots MATLAB Code Lab Parameter Configuration Input Signal Type Sine Wave Cosine Wave AM Signal DSBSC Signal Message Freq (Hz) Carrier Freq (Hz) Sampling Freq (Hz) Filter Order (N) SNR (dB) Step 1: Initialize Virtual Experiment Cli...